Rabu, 31 Oktober 2012
LIPID COMPOUNDS IN LIFE
Lipid is one of a group of organic compounds found in plants, animals, or humans and are very useful for human life. Lipid compounds do not have a formula similar structure or similar. Kimi properties and biological functions also vary.
Subcutaneous tissue around the abdomen, the fat tissue around the kidneys contain a lot of lipids, especially fatty approximately 90%, in brain tissue lipid atal the eggs are about the size of 7.5 to 30%.
Karakteriktik and Lipid Structure
Physical Characteristics
The term lipids include fats, oils and related compounds are not soluble in water and oily to the touch. Some lipid foods, butter, margarine, or cooking oil can be easily identified as fat. Other foods that may seem to consist of mostly carbohydrates (bread types) or protein (cow pie) often contain a lot of fat. We refer to this as the hidden fat.
Chemical Characteristics
Chemical name for fats and related compounds are fat lipids. Lipids are organic compounds consisting of a carbon chain as a "basic framework", with the hydrogen and oxygen atoms and other radicals or groups tertikat other elements. Fatty acids and related compounds are lipids that are important in human nutrition. Lipids have a general similarity with carbohydrates. Same chemical elements that make up carbohydrates - carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen - also form fatty acids. However, carbohydrates and lipids have two important differences as follows:
Lipid more complex structure, with more carbon atoms (C) and hydrogen (H) and fewer oxygen atoms (O).
structural units of lipids is common fatty acids, while the structural units of carbohydrates are simple sugars. First we will look at the typical characteristics of fatty acids - saturation, chain length, and essentiality - before focusing on the properties of lipid (triglycerides) are composed of fatty acids. (Junaidi, 2012)
LIPID STRUCTURE
Lipid-based compound is defined as fatty acids or fatty acid-like molecules such as alcohol or spingosin.
Figure 1 Structure of Lipids
The structures of some common lipids. At the top is oleic acid and cholesterol. The structure of the center is composed of a chain triglycerides oleoil, stearoyl, and palmitoyl glycerol attached to the frame. At the bottom is the common phospholipid, fosfatidikolina. Characteristics that are common in all the lipid content of hydro-carbon is derived from acetate polymerization followed by reduction of the chain as soon as the chain is formed.
Lipid function is:
• As a structural constituent of cell membranes
• In this lipid acts as a barrier to cells and regulate the flow of materials
• As a backup energy
• Lipids are stored as adipose tissue
• As hormaon and vitamin
• Hormone regulate communication between cells, while vitamin helps the regulation of biological processes.
Gliserolipid
Gliserolipid is a lipid-containing glycerol in which the hydroxyl groups have been substituted. Gliserolipid are the most abundant lipids in animals. Gliserolipid substitutes composed of glycerol mono-, di-, and tri-, the most famous are the fatty acid esters of glycerol (triacylglycerol), also known as triglycerides. Within these compounds, the three hydroxyl groups esterified glycerol respectively, usually by different fatty acids. Because it serves as food reserves, lipid is present in most of the fat reserves in animal tissues. Triacylglycerol hydrolysis of the ester bond and release of glycerol and fatty acids from adipose tissue are called "fat mobilization."
Another gliserolipid glikosilgliserol Subclass, which is characterized by the presence of one or more monosaccharide residues attached to glycerol via a glycosidic bond. Examples of structures in this category are digalaktosildiasilgliserol were found in the membrane of plant and seminolipid of mammalian sperm cells.
Glycerides are esters of fatty acids and alcohols with similar functional tigagugus called glycerol (IUPAC name, 1,2,3-propantriol). Since glycerol has three functional groups alcohols, fatty acids will react to make three ester groups at once. Glycerides with three fatty acid ester group called triglycerides. Types of fatty acids attached to the third group often did not come from the same class of fatty acids.
Phospholipids
(Glisero) phospholipids (English: phospholipids, phosphoglycerides, glycerophospholipid) is very similar to triglycerides with some exceptions. Phospholipids are formed from glycerol (IUPAC name, 1,2,3-propantriol) with two alcohol groups that form the fatty acid ester group (can be from different classes), and an alcohol group to form phosphoric acid ester group.
Gliserofosfolipid, also referred to as phospholipids, there are quite a lot in nature and are key components dwilapis lipd cells, and are involved in the metabolism and signal communication between cells. Neural tissue including the brain, contains enough gliserofosfolipid. Changes in the composition of these substances can result in various neurological disorders.
Examples gliserofosfolipid found in biological membranes are fosfatidilkolina (also known as PC, GPCho, or lecithin), fosfatidiletanolamina (PE or GPEtn), and fosfatidilserina (PS or GPSer). In addition to acting as the primary component of cell membranes and a commitment to the protein intra-and antarseluler, some gliserofosfolipid in eukaryotic cells, such as phosphatidylinositol and fosfatidat acid is a precursor, or second messenger itself is derived from the membrane. Typically, one or both of these hydroxyl groups acylated with long-chain fatty acids, meskit gliserofosfolipid there are bound to alkyl and 1Z-alkenyl (plasmalogen). There are also variants dialkileter on arkaebakteria.
Gliserofosfolipid can be divided according to the nature of the polar head groups at the sn-3 position of the glycerol backbone in eukaryotes and eubakteria, or sn-1 position in the case of archaea.
Because the phosphoric acid ester group still has a free valence bond, usually with alcohol to form the ester group, such as amino alcohols kolina, ethanolamine and serine. Phospholipids are the major component of the cell membrane layer of fat. Phospholipids are commonly encountered are:
Lecithin containing amino alcohol type kolina
Kepalin containing amino alcohol type serine or ethanolamine.
The nature of the character depends phospholipid fatty acids and amino alcohols were tied.
Sfingolipid
Sfingolipid is a complex family of compounds that share the same structural features, the basic framework sfingoid bases are synthesized de novo from amino acids serine and long-chain fatty acyl CoA, which is then converted into ceramides, fosfosfingolipid, glisosfingolipid, and compounds other.
Sfingolipid name is taken from Greek mythology, Spinx, half woman and half lion destroy anyone who is not able to answer the riddle. Sfingolipid discovered by Johann Thudichum in 1874 as a puzzle that is very complex from brain tissue.
Sfingolipid second type of fat is found in the cell membranes, especially in nerve cells and brain tissue. They do not mengandunggliserol, but can hold two alcohol groups at the center of the frame amines.
The main Fosfosfingolipid in mammals is sphingomyelin (ceramides fosfokolina), while the insects mainly contain ceramides fosfoetanolamina and fungi have fitoseramida fosfoinositol and mannose-containing head groups.
Basa main sfingoid mammals commonly referred to as sfingosina. Ceramides (Tongue N-acyl-sfingoid) is the main subclass sfingoid base derivatives with fatty acids attached to the amide. Fatty acid is usually mono-unsaturated or saturated with chain length of 16 carbon atoms to 26 carbon atoms.
Glikosfingolipid is a diverse group of molecules that are composed of one or more sugar residues linked to alkaline sfingoid via a glycosidic bond.
Lipid sterol
Sterol lipids, such as cholesterol and its derivatives, is an important component of membrane lipids, along with gliserofosfolipid and sphingomyelin. Steroids, all derived from the four-ring core structure melting of the same, has a varied biological roles as hormones danmolekul signaling. Steroid 18-carbon (C18) include the estrogen family, while the C19 steroids comprise the androgens such as testosterone danandrosteron. C21 subclass includes progestagen, as well as glucocorticoids and mineral okortikoid. Sekosteroid, consists of a wide range of bentukvitamin D, characterized by cleavage of the B ring of the core structure. Other examples of fatty acids and bile sterols are conjugate-conjugate, which in mammals are oxidized derivatives of cholesterol and are synthesized in the liver. In plants, the equivalent is a phytosterol compounds, such as beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and brasikasterol; latter compounds are also used as the growth of algae. Predominant sterol in fungal cell membranes is ergosterol.
Lipid prenol
Lipid prenol synthesized from 5-carbon precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate pyrophosphate dandimetilalil mostly generated through the passage mevalonic acid (MVA). Simple isoprenoids (linear alcohols, diphosphates, etc.) are formed from the addition of C5 units are continuous, and are classified according to the number of these terpene units. Structures containing more than 40 carbon known as polyterpenes. Carotenoids are important simple isoprenoids that function as antioxidants and as precursors of vitamin A. Example of an important class of biological molecules is another quinone and hydroquinone containing isoprenoid tail attached to the core kuinonoid which is not derived from isoprenoid. Vitamin E and vitamin K, as well ubikuinon, is an example of this class. Prokaryotes synthesize poliprenol (called baktoprenol) the terminal isoprenoid unit attached to oxygen remains unsaturated, whereas in animal poliprenol (dolikol) the terminal isoprenoid been reduced.
Sakarolipid
Structure sakarolipid Kdo2-Lipid A. Glucosamine residues blue, red KDO residues, acyl chains in black and phosphate groups in green.
Sakarolipid (English: saccharolipid, glucolipid) is a fatty acid molecule attached directly with glucose to form membrane structures in accordance with dwilapis. In sakarolipid, monosakari and replacing ties glycerol with fatty acids, as occurs in gliserolipid and gliserofosfolipid.
Sakarolipid the best known are the acylated glucosamine precursors of the lipid A component of lipopolysaccharide on gram-negative bacteria. Lipid-A molecule is a disaccharide of glucosamine general, derived seven-fatty acyl chains. Minimal lipopolysaccharide required for growth of E. coli is Kdo2-Lipid A, which is a disaccharide of glucosamine-acyl berheksa that diglikosilasikan acid residues with two 3-deoxy-D-mano-oktulosonat (KDO).
Minggu, 21 Oktober 2012
Organic Compounds of Life
Living organisms must be able to:Exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings.Transform matter and energy into a different form.Responding to changes in their environment.Growing.Reproduce.All of these changes are due to large organic compounds called macromolecules.Macromolecules is a combination of many similar smaller molecules polymerized into a chain structure.In
living organisms, there are three main types of macromolecules that
controls all the activities and determine what an organism will do and
be.Protein.carbohydrateNucleic acids.1.Protein are macromolecules which are polymers of amino acids.In
a review of protein chemistry is a complex organic compounds of high
molecular weight polymer with a monomer in the form of amino acids
linked by peptide bonds
For a discussion we examine the first protein monomer building blocks of protein are amino acidsAmino acids are organic compounds having carboxylate functional group (COOH) and amine (NH2) attached to a carbon atom (Cɲ) the same, the atom is also generally a C asymmetric. The detailed structure of amino acids built by a C atom that binds to four groups namely amine (NH2), a carboxylic group (COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and the rest of the group R. This cluster distinguishes one amino acid with another amino acid. Carboxylate groups of acidic amino acid causes the amine group is basa.Hal is due to protonation, the amine group becomes - [NH3 +] and a carboxylate ion - [COO-], so that amino acids have two charge and is called the zwitter-ion. Classification of Acid acids based on the nature and structure of the leaving group (R), as R groups that are acidic, alkaline, sulfur-containing R groups or hydroxyl, R as aromatic compounds, aliphatic and cyclic. However, the commonly used classification is the nature of the polarity of the group R.2.Karbohidrat ('hydrates of carbon', carbohydrate) or saccharides (from the Greek σάκχαρον, sákcharon, meaning "sugar") is a majority of the most abundant organic compound on earth. The simplest forms of carbohydrate molecules consist of one molecule of simple sugars called monosaccharides, such as glucose, galactose, and fructose. Many carbohydrates are polymers made up of sugar molecules that are strung into long chains and can also ramify, called polysaccharides, such as starch, chitin, and cellulose. In addition to monosaccharides and polysaccharides, there is also a disaccharide (two monosaccharides series) and oligosaccharides (chain several monosaccharides).3. Nucleic acids were first isolated macromolecules of the cell nucleus. Nucleic acids form linear chains which is a combination of nucleotide monomers as the builder unit. This molecule stores information cell growth and reproduction.
Nucleotide monomers as the primary structure of nucleic acids obtained from the hydrolysis of nucleic acids. Further hydrolysis of the nucleotide monomers will produce phosphoric acid and nucleoside. Hydrolysis process was carried out under alkaline conditions. If hydrolysis continued to nucleoside compounds in aqueous acidic solution will produce a sugar molecule and nitrogen bases to form heterocyclic. So the composition of the constituent molecules of nucleic acid known,
For a discussion we examine the first protein monomer building blocks of protein are amino acidsAmino acids are organic compounds having carboxylate functional group (COOH) and amine (NH2) attached to a carbon atom (Cɲ) the same, the atom is also generally a C asymmetric. The detailed structure of amino acids built by a C atom that binds to four groups namely amine (NH2), a carboxylic group (COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and the rest of the group R. This cluster distinguishes one amino acid with another amino acid. Carboxylate groups of acidic amino acid causes the amine group is basa.Hal is due to protonation, the amine group becomes - [NH3 +] and a carboxylate ion - [COO-], so that amino acids have two charge and is called the zwitter-ion. Classification of Acid acids based on the nature and structure of the leaving group (R), as R groups that are acidic, alkaline, sulfur-containing R groups or hydroxyl, R as aromatic compounds, aliphatic and cyclic. However, the commonly used classification is the nature of the polarity of the group R.2.Karbohidrat ('hydrates of carbon', carbohydrate) or saccharides (from the Greek σάκχαρον, sákcharon, meaning "sugar") is a majority of the most abundant organic compound on earth. The simplest forms of carbohydrate molecules consist of one molecule of simple sugars called monosaccharides, such as glucose, galactose, and fructose. Many carbohydrates are polymers made up of sugar molecules that are strung into long chains and can also ramify, called polysaccharides, such as starch, chitin, and cellulose. In addition to monosaccharides and polysaccharides, there is also a disaccharide (two monosaccharides series) and oligosaccharides (chain several monosaccharides).3. Nucleic acids were first isolated macromolecules of the cell nucleus. Nucleic acids form linear chains which is a combination of nucleotide monomers as the builder unit. This molecule stores information cell growth and reproduction.
Nucleotide monomers as the primary structure of nucleic acids obtained from the hydrolysis of nucleic acids. Further hydrolysis of the nucleotide monomers will produce phosphoric acid and nucleoside. Hydrolysis process was carried out under alkaline conditions. If hydrolysis continued to nucleoside compounds in aqueous acidic solution will produce a sugar molecule and nitrogen bases to form heterocyclic. So the composition of the constituent molecules of nucleic acid known,
Jumat, 05 Oktober 2012
Aromatic hydrocarbon
aromatic
hydrocarbon or arena [1] (sometimes also called aryl hydrocarbon) [2]
is a hydrocarbon with a single bond or a double bond, and between carbon
atoms. Configuration 6 carbon atoms in an aromatic compound called benzene rings. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic or polycyclic.
Some aromatic compounds that are not called heteroarena benzene derivatives, these compounds follow Hückel Rule. In these compounds, at least one carbon atom is replaced by another atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. One contohn compound is furan, a heterocyclic ring compound having 5 members, one oxygen atom. Another example is pyridine, a heterocyclic ring compound with 6 members, one nitrogen atom. [3]
Aromatic substitution In aromatic substitution, 1 substituents on the ring arena (usually hydrogen) will be replaced with other substituents. 2 main types are electrophilic aromatic substitution (active electrophile reagent) and nucleophilic aromatic substitution (reagennya nucleophile). In the radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution, a radical form of active reagents. One example is the nitration of salicylic acid: [4]:
Couplings At couplings, metal will catalyze the coupling between the two radical fragments formal. The results are usually obtained from the coupling reaction is the formation of new carbon-carbon bonds, for example alkilarena, vinyl arena, biraril, the carbon-nitrogen (aniline) or a carbon-oxygen bond new. An example is the arylation of perfluorobenzena
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are carcinogenic particular one, meaning that there are cancerous. These compounds can produce tumors in mice within a very short time even though only a few are applied to the skin. This is not only carcinogenic hydrocarbons present in coal tar, but also the soot and tobacco smoke and can form in the meat baker. Biological effects have been known for a long time, ie since 1775, when the soot is defined as a cause of cancer of the penis chimney cleaning. Incidence of lip cancer and heart disease are also found in the smoker.
How these carcinogens cause cancer now began to unfold. To eliminate hydrocarbons, mengoksidasinya body to be more soluble in water, making it easier excreted. Metabolic oxidation product appears to be the major cause of cancer. For example, one of the most potent carcinogens of this type is benzo [a] pirena. Enzymatic oxidation converts it into diol-epoxide as shown in the figure below.
Diol-epoxide is then reacted with the cell's DNA, causing mutations that ultimately prevents cells reproduce normally.
Benzene is highly toxic (toxic) to humans and can cause severe liver damage, but toluene, though not dangerous, is much less toxic. How might these two similar compounds behave differently? To eliminate benzene from the body, must be in cinci aromatic oxidation, and this oxidation intermediates of a destructive nature. However, the side chain methyl of toluene can be oxidized to produce benzoic acid, which can be excreted. Intermediates in this process can not cause health problems.
While some chemicals can cause cancer, other substances can change or heal. Many substances that can prevent cancer growth, and assessment of cancer chemotherapy has been widely sumbangnya human health.
Some aromatic compounds that are not called heteroarena benzene derivatives, these compounds follow Hückel Rule. In these compounds, at least one carbon atom is replaced by another atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. One contohn compound is furan, a heterocyclic ring compound having 5 members, one oxygen atom. Another example is pyridine, a heterocyclic ring compound with 6 members, one nitrogen atom. [3]
Aromatic substitution In aromatic substitution, 1 substituents on the ring arena (usually hydrogen) will be replaced with other substituents. 2 main types are electrophilic aromatic substitution (active electrophile reagent) and nucleophilic aromatic substitution (reagennya nucleophile). In the radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution, a radical form of active reagents. One example is the nitration of salicylic acid: [4]:
Couplings At couplings, metal will catalyze the coupling between the two radical fragments formal. The results are usually obtained from the coupling reaction is the formation of new carbon-carbon bonds, for example alkilarena, vinyl arena, biraril, the carbon-nitrogen (aniline) or a carbon-oxygen bond new. An example is the arylation of perfluorobenzena
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are carcinogenic particular one, meaning that there are cancerous. These compounds can produce tumors in mice within a very short time even though only a few are applied to the skin. This is not only carcinogenic hydrocarbons present in coal tar, but also the soot and tobacco smoke and can form in the meat baker. Biological effects have been known for a long time, ie since 1775, when the soot is defined as a cause of cancer of the penis chimney cleaning. Incidence of lip cancer and heart disease are also found in the smoker.
How these carcinogens cause cancer now began to unfold. To eliminate hydrocarbons, mengoksidasinya body to be more soluble in water, making it easier excreted. Metabolic oxidation product appears to be the major cause of cancer. For example, one of the most potent carcinogens of this type is benzo [a] pirena. Enzymatic oxidation converts it into diol-epoxide as shown in the figure below.
Diol-epoxide is then reacted with the cell's DNA, causing mutations that ultimately prevents cells reproduce normally.
Benzene is highly toxic (toxic) to humans and can cause severe liver damage, but toluene, though not dangerous, is much less toxic. How might these two similar compounds behave differently? To eliminate benzene from the body, must be in cinci aromatic oxidation, and this oxidation intermediates of a destructive nature. However, the side chain methyl of toluene can be oxidized to produce benzoic acid, which can be excreted. Intermediates in this process can not cause health problems.
While some chemicals can cause cancer, other substances can change or heal. Many substances that can prevent cancer growth, and assessment of cancer chemotherapy has been widely sumbangnya human health.
Kamis, 04 Oktober 2012
Hydrocarbon Derivatives
Hydrocarbon Derivatives |
-Organic compounds are divided into two main classes: hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon derivatives -Organic compounds are divided into two classes play: hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon derivatives -Hydrocarbon derivatives are molecular compounds of carbon and at least one other element that is not hydrogen -Hydrocarbon derivatives are molecular compounds of carbon and at least one other element that is not hydrogen -Organic halides are organic compounds in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by halogen atoms -Organic halides are organic compounds in which one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by halogen atoms -Common organic halides include freons (chlorofluorocarbons) and Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene) -Common organic halides include freons (chlorofluorocarbons) and Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene) -Naming halides uses the same format as branched-chain hydrocarbons -Naming halides uses the same format as branched-chain hydrocarbons -The branch is named by shortening the halogen name to fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, or iodo- -The branch is named by shortening the halogen name to fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, or iodo- -In drawing organic halides using IUPAC names, draw the parent chain and add branches at locations specified in the name -In drawing organic halides using IUPAC names, draw the parent chain and add branches at locations specified in the name eg. eg. Cl Cl Cl Cl | | | | HCCH HCCH | | | | HH HH-Organic halides react fast which is explained from the idea that no strong covalent bond is broken – the electron rearrangement does not involve separation of the carbon atoms Organic halides react fast-roomates is Explained from the idea that no strong covalent bond is broken - the electron rearrangement does not involve separation of the carbon atoms -Addition of halogens could be added to alkynes which results in alkenes or alkanes -Addition of halogens could be added to alkynes roomates results in alkenes or alkanes -By adding halogens to alkenes, the product could undergo another addition step, by adding halogens to the parent chain, the double bond has to become a single bond in order to accommodate the halogens -By adding halogens to alkenes, the addition product could undergo another step, by adding halogens to the parent chain, the double bond has up to become a single bond in order to accommodate the halogens eg. eg. Br Br Br Br Br Br Br Br | | | | | | | | HC=CH + Br-Br => HCCH HC = CH + Br-Br => HCCH | | | | Br Br Br Br -By adding hydrogen halides to unsaturated compounds will produce isomers -By adding hydrogen halides to unsaturated compounds will produce isomers HHHHHHHHH HHHHHHHHH | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | HC=CCH + H-Cl => HCCCH OR HCCCH HC = CCH + H-Cl => HCCCH OR HCCCH | | | | | | | | | | | | | | H Cl HH HCl H HCl Cl H HH H -Substitution reaction is a reaction that involves the breaking of a carbon-hydrogen bond in an alkane or aromatic ring and the replacement of the hydrogen atom with another atom or group of atoms -Substitution reaction is a reaction that involves the breaking of a carbon-hydrogen bond in an alkane or aromatic ring and the replacement of the hydrogen atom with another atom or group of atoms -With light energy it enables the substitution reaction to move at a noticeable rate eg. -With light energy it Enables the substitution reaction to move at a noticeable rate eg. C 3 H 8 + BR 2 + light => C 3 H 7 Br + HBR C 3 H 8 + BR 2 + light => C 3 H 7 Br + HBR -Through substitution reaction, in order to name the reaction product, just indicate the location number of the replacement, followed by the halogen prefix (eg. Bromo-) and then state the type of parent chain. -Through substitution reaction, in order to name the reaction product, just indicate the location number of the replacement, Followed by the halogen prefix (eg Bromo-) and then state the type of parent chain. Also indicate the second product created from substitution reaction (hydrogen bromide) eg. Also indicate the second product created from a substitution reaction (hydrogen bromide) eg. propane + bromine => 1-bromopropane + hydrogen bromide propane + bromine => 1-bromopropane + hydrogen bromide -Elimination is an organic reaction in which an alkyl halide reacts with hydroxide ion to produce an alkene by removing a hydrogen and halide ion from the molecule -Elimination is an organic reaction in an alkyl halide roomates reacts with hydroxide ions to produce an Alkene by removing a hydrogen and halide ion from the molecule HHHHHH Hhhhhh | | | | | | | | | | | | HCCCH + OH => HC=CCH + HO + Br HCCCH + OH => HC = CCH + HO + Br | | | | | | | | | | H BrH HH BRH H HH -Alcohols have properties that can be explained by the presence of a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to a hydrocarbon chain -Alcohols have properties that can be Explained by the presence of a hydroxyl (-OH) functional group attached to a hydrocarbon chain -Short-chain alcohols are very soluble in water because they form hydrogen bonds with water molecules -Short-chain alcohols are very soluble in water Because they form hydrogen bonds with water molecules -Alcohols are used as solvents in organic reactions because they are effective for both polar and non-polar compounds -Alcohols are used as solvents in organic reactions Because they are effective for both polar and non-polar compounds -To name alcohols, the –e is dropped from the end of the alkane name and is replaced with –ol eg. -To name alcohols, the-e is dropped from the end of the alkane name and is replaced with-ol eg. Methane => methanol Methane => methanol -Methanol is also called wood alcohol because it was once made by heating wood shavings in the absence of air -Methanol is also called wood alcohol Because it was once made by heating wood shavings in the absence of water -These days, methanol is prepared by combining carbon monoxide and hydrogen at high temperatures and pressure with the use of a catalyst -These days, methanol is prepared by combining carbon monoxide and hydrogen at high Temperatures and pressure with the use of a catalyst -Methanol, however, is poisonous to humans. -Methanol, however, is poisonous to humans. Consuming a small amount could cause blindness or death Consuming a small amount could cause blindness or death -When naming alcohols with more than two carbon atoms, the position of the hydroxyl grouphttp://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=3932432813087534660#editor/src=dashboard is indicated -When naming alcohols with more than two carbon atoms, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated -Alcohols that contain more than one hydroxyl group are called polyalcohols, their names indicate the positions of the hydroxyl groups eg. Contain-alcohols that more than one hydroxyl group are called polyalcohols, their names indicate the positions of the hydroxyl groups eg. 1,2-ethanediol 1.2-Ethanediol -Alcohols undergo elimination reactions to produce alkenes through being catalyzed by concentrated sulfuric acid, which removes or eliminates a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group -Alcohols undergo elimination reactions to produce alkenes through being catalyzed by concentrated sulfuric acid, roomates removes or eliminates a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group HHHH | | | | Hhhh | | | | HCCH + acid => HC=CH + HO HCCH + acid => HC = CH + HO | | | | | | H OH H H OH H -Ethers is a family of organic compounds that contain an oxygen atom bonded between two hydrocarbon groups, and have the general formula R 1 -OR 2 -Ethers is a family of organic compounds that Contain an oxygen atom bonded between two hydrocarbon groups, and have the general formula R 1-OR 2 -To name ethers add oxy to the prefix for the smaller hydrocarbon group and join it to the alkane name of the larger hydrocarbon group -To name ethers add oxy to the prefix for the smaller hydrocarbon group and join it to the alkane name of the larger hydrocarbon group eg. eg. CH 3 -OC 2 H 5 CH 3-OC 2 H 5 -Ethers have low solubility in water, low boiling points, and have no evidence of hydrogen bonding -Ethers have low solubility in water, low boiling points, and have no evidence of hydrogen bonding -Ethers undergo chemical change only when treated with powerful reagents under vigorous conditions -Ethers undergo chemical change only when treated with powerful reagents under conditions Vigorous -Ethers are formed by the condensation reaction of alcohols -Ethers are formed by the condensation reaction of alcohols -Condensation reaction is the joining of two molecules and the elimination of a small molecule, usually water -Condensation reaction is the joining of two molecules and the elimination of a small molecule, Usually water -The carbonyl functional group, -CO-, consists of a carbon atom with a double covalent bond to an oxygen atom -The carbonyl functional group,-CO-, consists of a carbon atom with a double covalent bond to an oxygen atom -Aldehydes has the carbonyl group on the terminal carbon atom of a chain -Aldehydes has the carbonyl group on the terminal carbon atom of a chain -To name aldehydes, replace the final –e of the name of the corresponding alkane with the suffix –al -To name aldehydes, replace the final-e of the name of the corresponding alkane with the suffix-al -Small aldehyde molecules have sharp, irritating odors whereas larger molecules have flowery odors and is used to make perfumes Small-aldehyde molecules have sharp, irritating odors whereas larger molecules have flowery odors and is used to makeup perfumes -A ketone has the carbonyl group present anywhere in a carbon chain except at the end of the chain -A ketone has the carbonyl group present in a carbon chain anywhere except at the end of the chain -The difference in position of the carbonyl group affects the chemical reactivity, and enables us to distinguish aldehydes from ketones empirically -The difference in position of the carbonyl group affects the chemical reactivity, and Enables us to distinguish aldehydes from ketones empirically -To name ketones, replace the –e ending of the name of the corresponding alkane with –one -To name ketones, replace the-e ending of the name of the corresponding alkane with-one -The simplest ketone is acetone (propanone), CH 3 COCH 3 -The Simplest ketone is acetone (propanone), CH 3 COCH 3 -The family of organic compounds, carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl functional group, -COOH, which includes both the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups -The family of organic compounds, carboxylic acids Contain the Carboxyl functional group,-COOH, roomates includes both the carbonyl and hydroxyl groups -Carboxylic acids are found in citrus fruits, and other foods with properties of having a sour taste -Carboxylic acids are found in citrus fruits, and other foods with properties of having a sour taste -Carboxylic acids also have distinctive odors (like sweat from a person's feet) -Carboxylic acids also have distinctive odors (like sweat from a person's feet) -The molecules of carboxylic acids are polar and form hydrogen bonds both with each other and with water molecules -The molecules of carboxylic acids are polar and form hydrogen bonds both with each other and with water molecules -Carboxylic acids acid properties, so a litmus test can separate these compounds from other hydrocarbon derivatives -Carboxylic acids acid properties, so a litmus test can separate these compounds from other hydrocarbon derivatives -To name carboxylic acids, replace the –e ending of the alkane name with –oic, followed by the word “acid” -To name carboxylic acids, replace the-e ending of the alkane name with-oic, Followed by the word "acid" -Methanoic acid, HCOOH, is the first member of the carboxylic acid family -Methanoic acid, HCOOH, is the first member of the carboxylic acid family -Some acids contain two or three carbonyl groups such as oxalic acid, and citric acid -Some acids Contain two or three carbonyl groups such as oxalic acid, and citric acid
COOH CH 2 -COOH COOH CH 2-COOH
| | | |
COOH HO-C-COOH COOH HO-C-COOH
| |
CH 2 -COOH CH 2-COOH
-When carboxylic acids undergo a condensation reaction, in which a carboxylic acid combines with another reactant, it forms two products – an organic compound and water -When carboxylic acids undergo a condensation reaction, in roomates a carboxylic acid combines with another reactant, it forms two products - an organic compound and water -Esterification is the condensation reaction in which a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol to produce ester and water -Esterification is the condensation reaction in roomates a carboxylic acid reacts with an alcohol to produce an ester and water -carboxylic acid + alcohol => ester + water -Carboxylic acid + alcohol => ester + water -The ester functional group is similar to that of an acid, except that the hydrogen atom of the carboxyl group is replaced by a hydrocarbon branch -The ester functional group is Similar to that of an acid, except that the hydrogen atoms of the Carboxyl group is replaced by a hydrocarbon branch -Esters are responsible for the odors of fruits and flowers and are also added to foods for aroma and taste -Esters are responsible for the odors of fruits and flowers and are also added to foods for flavor and taste -To name an ester, determine name of the alkyl group from the alcohol used in the esterification reaction -To name an ester, Determine name of the alkyl group from the alcohol used in the esterification reaction -Next change the ending of the acid name from “–oic acid” to “–oate” -Next change the ending of the acid name from "-oic acid" to "-oate" -ethanoic acid + methanol => methyl ethanoate + water -Ethanoic acid + methanol => methyl ethanoate + water -Artificial flavorings are made by mixing synthetic esters to give similar odors of the natural substance -Artificial flavorings are made by mixing synthetic esters to give Similar odors of the natural substance -An amide consists of a carboxyl group bonded to a nitrogen atom An amide-Carboxyl group consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to a -Amides could be formed in condensation reactions -Amides could be formed in condensation reactions -Amides occur in proteins, the large molecules found in all living organisms -Amides occur in proteins, the large molecules found in all living organisms -Peptide bonds is the joining of amino acids together in proteins Peptide-bonds is the joining together of amino acids in proteins -To name amides, have the name of the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms, with the final –e replaced by the suffix –amide -To name amides, have the name of the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms, with the final-e replaced by the suffix-amide -Change the suffix of the carboxylic acid from “–oic acid” to –amide to have the same name results eg. -Change the suffix of the carboxylic acid from "-oic acid" to-amide to have the same name results eg. ethanamide ethanamide -Amines consist of one or more hydrocarbon groups bonded to a nitrogen atom Amines-Consist of one or more hydrocarbon groups bonded to a nitrogen atom -Through X-Ray diffraction reveals that the amine functional group is a nitrogen atom bonded by single covalent bonds to one, two, or three carbon atoms -Through X-ray diffraction reveals that the amine functional group is a nitrogen atom bonded by single covalent bonds to one, two, or three carbon atoms -Amines are polar substances that re extremely soluble in water as they form strong hydrogen bonds both to each other and to water Amines-polar substances that are extremely soluble in water re as they form strong hydrogen bonds both to each other and to water -Amines have peculiar, horrible odors (eg. smell of rotting fish) -Amines have peculiar, horrible odors (eg smell of rotting fish) -The name of amines include the names of the alkyl groups attached to the nitrogen atom, followed by the suffix –amine eg. -The name of amines include the names of the alkyl groups attached to the nitrogen atom, Followed by the suffix-amine eg. methylamine methylamine -Amines with one, two, or three hydrocarbon groups attached to the central nitrogen atom are referred to as primary, secondary, and tertiary -Amines with one, two, or three hydrocarbon groups attached to the central nitrogen atom are Referred to as primary, secondary, and tertiary -Primary amines is when a hydrogen atom attached to the nitrogen atom is replaced by a hydrocarbon group -Primary amines when a hydrogen atom is attached to the nitrogen atom is replaced by a hydrocarbon group -Secondary amines are when two hydrocarbon groups replaces the hydrogen atoms and tertiary amines replaces all of the hydrogen atoms with hydrocarbon groups -Secondary amines are when two hydrocarbon groups replaces the hydrogen atoms and tertiary amines replaces all of the hydrogen atoms with hydrocarbon groups -Amines are used in the synthesis of medicines -Amines are used in the synthesis of medicines -A group of amines found in many plants are called alkaloids -A group of amines found in many plants are called alkaloids -Many alkaloids influence the function of the central nervous systems of animals -Many alkaloids influence the function of the central nervous systems of animals -Substitution – alkane/aromatic + halogen + light => organic halide + hydrogen halide -Substitution - alkane / aromatic halogen + + light => + hydrogen halide organic halide -Elimination – alkyl halide + OH => alkene + water |+ water + halide ion -Elimination - alkyl halide + OH => Alkene water + | + water + halide ion -Elimination – alcohol + acid => alkene + water -Elimination - alcohol + acid => Alkene + water |
Senin, 01 Oktober 2012
Why Carbon can form Chain 1,2,and 3
Uniqueness of Carbon Atoms
1. Carbon atom has four valence electrons
Based on the configuration of electrons held six carbon atoms found that its valence electrons is 4. To achieve stability, the atoms still needs 4 more electrons by covalent bonds. No element of other groups that can form covalent bonds with as many as 4 pieces of the octet rule.
2. Small Relative Elemental Carbon Atoms
Judging from the electron configuration, it is known that atoms
carbon lies in period 2, which means the atom has a second skin
atom, so the atomic radius is relatively small. This causes the bond
formed relatively strong covalent and can form a covalent bond
duplicate.
3. Carbon Atom Can Establish Carbon Chain
The state of the carbon atom to carbon atom thus cause
forming a very long carbon chains with covalent bonding, covalent bonding either single, dual 2, or 3 copies. Moreover, it can also form a chain ring (cyclic).
Uniqueness of Carbon Atoms: Has Ability Form Chain - One of the perks of carbon that is not owned by the other elements is their ability to form chains of carbon atoms, which we hereafter refer to as the carbon chain.
Carbon chains may be either a single bond, double bond, or a triple bond. Forms of carbon chains themselves are very varied, there is a straight (unbranched), there is a branching, there are open, and there is a closed (circular).
Compounds with an open chain compounds called aliphatic compounds while closed or circular chain called cyclic compounds. The compounds are all carbon bond is a single bond, - C - C - called unsaturated carbon compounds, while having a carbon-carbon double bond, - C - C -, or triple - C = C -, called unsaturated carbon compounds.
Cyclic compounds having conjugated bonds, the carbon-carbon bond alternating single and dual, are called aromatic compounds. All cyclic compounds that are not included aromatic compounds are called alicyclic compounds, (the word comes from the word ali alicyclic and cyclic). These compounds are called alicyclic compound because it has a circular shape, but its properties resemble aliphatic compounds.
Why carbon can form so many compounds, with very varied types? Why is this not happening in the adjacent element or elements are classified with the carbon in the periodic table? BC has the electron configuration of atoms 2 4. The four valence electrons distributed on the four C atoms in a symmetrical position.
ability to bind carbon atoms and follow the octet rule is different from other atoms, even within a single class. For example, boron and nitrogen atoms. Electron configuration of two atoms is J3: 2 3 and _n: 2 5. Boron atom has three valence electrons so that when the covalent bonds, resulting compounds do not follow the octet Kaidan.
Carbon has four valence electrons with the atomic radii price the smallest of the atomic radius of other elements in the group IVA. It facilitates the C atom to form covalent bonds with other atoms, especially with atomic H, O, N, and halogen atoms (F, Cl, Br, and I). Covalent bonds are formed to meet the octet rule. The carbon atom can form up to four covalent bonds. Covalent bond formed by atoms C is more powerful than other covalent bonds, so that the carbon compounds are stable.
The position of carbon atoms in the periodic table in the middle so it has a moderate electronegativity value (2.5). This trait causes the carbon atoms can bind atoms having electronegativity greater or even smaller. The carbon atom can have a positive oxidation state (+2, +4), negative (-2, -4), or even zero.
1. Carbon atom has four valence electrons
Based on the configuration of electrons held six carbon atoms found that its valence electrons is 4. To achieve stability, the atoms still needs 4 more electrons by covalent bonds. No element of other groups that can form covalent bonds with as many as 4 pieces of the octet rule.
2. Small Relative Elemental Carbon Atoms
Judging from the electron configuration, it is known that atoms
carbon lies in period 2, which means the atom has a second skin
atom, so the atomic radius is relatively small. This causes the bond
formed relatively strong covalent and can form a covalent bond
duplicate.
3. Carbon Atom Can Establish Carbon Chain
The state of the carbon atom to carbon atom thus cause
forming a very long carbon chains with covalent bonding, covalent bonding either single, dual 2, or 3 copies. Moreover, it can also form a chain ring (cyclic).
Uniqueness of Carbon Atoms: Has Ability Form Chain - One of the perks of carbon that is not owned by the other elements is their ability to form chains of carbon atoms, which we hereafter refer to as the carbon chain.
Carbon chains may be either a single bond, double bond, or a triple bond. Forms of carbon chains themselves are very varied, there is a straight (unbranched), there is a branching, there are open, and there is a closed (circular).
Compounds with an open chain compounds called aliphatic compounds while closed or circular chain called cyclic compounds. The compounds are all carbon bond is a single bond, - C - C - called unsaturated carbon compounds, while having a carbon-carbon double bond, - C - C -, or triple - C = C -, called unsaturated carbon compounds.
Cyclic compounds having conjugated bonds, the carbon-carbon bond alternating single and dual, are called aromatic compounds. All cyclic compounds that are not included aromatic compounds are called alicyclic compounds, (the word comes from the word ali alicyclic and cyclic). These compounds are called alicyclic compound because it has a circular shape, but its properties resemble aliphatic compounds.
Why carbon can form so many compounds, with very varied types? Why is this not happening in the adjacent element or elements are classified with the carbon in the periodic table? BC has the electron configuration of atoms 2 4. The four valence electrons distributed on the four C atoms in a symmetrical position.
Carbon has four valence electrons with the atomic radii price the smallest of the atomic radius of other elements in the group IVA. It facilitates the C atom to form covalent bonds with other atoms, especially with atomic H, O, N, and halogen atoms (F, Cl, Br, and I). Covalent bonds are formed to meet the octet rule. The carbon atom can form up to four covalent bonds. Covalent bond formed by atoms C is more powerful than other covalent bonds, so that the carbon compounds are stable.
The position of carbon atoms in the periodic table in the middle so it has a moderate electronegativity value (2.5). This trait causes the carbon atoms can bind atoms having electronegativity greater or even smaller. The carbon atom can have a positive oxidation state (+2, +4), negative (-2, -4), or even zero.
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