Mid Test

Mid Test

Name: Tiara Viodelf

NIM: RSA1C1001

1.   1.   a. Explain how the concept of organic compounds from petroleum can be used as a fuel vehicles such as car, motor bike, including aircraft.

Answer: an organic compound is one that has as an main element..Petroleum has carbon is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and other organic compounds. Oil is a mixture of alkanes, cycloalkanes, and aromatic hydrocarbons. Petroleum is usually located 3-4 km below sea level. Crude oil gained accommodated in tankers or piped into a tank station or oil refinery. Crude oil contains about 500 types of hydrocarbons by the number of atoms C-1 to 50. Hydrocarbons boiling point increases with the number of C atoms inside the molecule. Therefore, the processing of petroleum through distillation storey, where crude oil is separated into groups (fractions) with similar boiling points.
 Distillation is the separation of petroleum fractions based on differences in their boiling points. In this case the fractional distillation. At first, crude oil is heated in a pipe flow in the furnace (furnace) until the temperature of ± 370 ° C. Crude oil that is heated is then entered into the fractionation column in the flash chamber (usually in the lower third of the fractionation column). To keep the temperature and pressure in the column then assisted heating with steam (steam and hot water high pressure).Crude oil is vaporized in the distillation process, up to the top of the column and then condensed at different temperatures. Components of a higher boiling point will remain a liquid and fall to the bottom, while the lower boiling point will evaporate and rise to the top through the lid-lid-called bubble shield. Growing up, temperatures are in the fractionating column is getting low, so each time the component with a higher boiling point will be separated, while the component lower boiling point up to the more up again. So the next so that the component is a component that peaked at room temperature in the form of gas. Components in the form of gas is called petroleum gas, liquefied and then called LPG (Liquified Petroleum Gas). Fraction of crude oil that does not evaporate into the residue. Residues include paraffin oil, wax, and asphalt. These residues have a carbon chain of more than 20.

Petroleum fractions produced by boiling ranges are as follows:

1. Gas
The range of carbon chain: C1 to C5
Boiling Route: 0 to 50 ° C

2. Gasoline (Petrol)
The range of carbon chain: C6 to C11
Boiling Route: 50 to 85 ° C

3. Kerosene (kerosene)
The range of carbon chain: C12 to C20
Boiling Route: 85 to 105 ° C
Boiling Route: 135 to 300 ° C

6. Residue
The range of carbon chain: on the C40
Boiling route: above 300 ° C

Petroleum fractions from distillation process has not been graded according to the quality of people's needs, so it needs further processing which includes the process of cracking, reforming, polymerization, treating, and
blending.

b. Explain it how the idea of chemical compunds from petroleum can be used to make clothing and plastic and material needs of other human lives.

Petroleum in addition to the purpose of transportation fuels, industrial fuel and fuel separately household, petroleum is also the base ingredient in the manufacture of a variety of purposes in modern society such as raw materials for plastics, paint, solvents in chemical industry2, even fabrics for apparel can now be made from petroleum.
The idea is by using current synthetic fibers made from petroleum. Synthetic fibers or man-made fibers are generally derived from petrochemicals. However, there are synthetic fibers made from natural cellulose such as rayon.

The definition of petrochemical is any chemical derived from fossil fuels. This includes the fossil fuels that have been purified as methane, propane, butane, gasoline, kerosene, diesel fuel, jet fuel, and also includes a variety of agricultural chemicals such as pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers, as well as materials such as plastic , asphalt, and artificial fibers.

Mineral fiber

    * Glass Fiber / Fiberglass, made of quartz,
    * Metal fibers can be made from Ductile metals such as [[copper], gold, or silver.
    * Carbon fiber

Polymer fibers

    * Fiber is the part of the polymer synthetic fibers. This type of fiber is made through a chemical process. A common material used to make polymer fibers:
          o polyamide nylon,
          o PET or PBT polyester, used to make plastic bottles,
          o phenol-formaldehyde (PF)
          o fiber polivinyl alcohol (PVOH)
          o fiber polivinyl chloride (PVC)
          o polyolefin (PP and PE)
          o polyethylene (PE),
          o Elastomer, is used to make spandex,
          o polyurethane.

Fabric / synthetic textiles such as nylon and polyester, manufactured completely from chemicals. Natural textiles, such as cotton, silk and wool tebuat from plant fibers or animal. Synthetic textiles are very useful because it has different properties and more advanced than the natural material. Plastic Raincoat for example, is waterproof.

Conversion reaction is the reaction of a base material for petroleum industry with the use of inexpensive materials into valuable materials needed so economical (cheap). This process is obtained in the polymerization (formation of plastic).

Polymerization is the process of forming a polymer. Polymer composed of natural polymers and synthetic polymers. Polymers are large molecules composed of repeating small units (monomers). Monomer is an organic compound that has a double bond and a double bond is open to form a bond with other monomers to the desired amount (synthetic polymers). Natural polymer compounds formed by nature, natural polymers are examples of latex (rubber tree), carbohydrate (corn cassava), protein, cellulose, resin. While examples of synthetic polymers are nylon, dacron, teflon.

Plastic is an elastic material, heat resistant, easy to set up, lighter than wood, and are not corroded by the moisture. Plastics other than it's cheap, it also can be used as an insulator and easily colored. While the weakness of the plastic is indestructible (degradation). Examples of plastic is polyethylene, polystyrene, (Styron, Lustrex, Loalin), polyester (Mylar, Celanex, Ekonol), polypropylene (Poly-Pro, Pro-fax), polyvinyl acetate.

Polyethylene or PE (Poly Eth, Tygothene, Pentothene) is a polymer of ethylene (CH2 = CH2) and a white plastic like a candle, can be made of synthetic resin and classified in thermoplastic (heat-resistant plastic). Polyethylene has such good press power, chemical resistance, low mechanical strength, moisture resistance, high flexibility, low electrical conductivity. Based on the density PE divided into two low-density PE (used as a wrapper, household appliance and insulators) and high density (used as a drum, a water pipe, or a bottle).

2.      2.explain why the hydrocarbons that are asymmetrical or chiral have a variety of benefit for human being. And describe how does it the chiral centers can be used.

Answer: Chiral compounds are when the four different ligands bound to the carbon tetravalent, asymmetric molecules which produce carbon atom at the center asimetrisnya. Chiral Molecules have very unique properties, namely optical properties. That is a chiral molecule has the ability to rotate the plane of polarized light in a device called a polarimeter.
Chemical reactions in biological systems are very stereospecific living things. That is a stereoisomer will undergo a different reaction partner stereoisomers in biological systems of living things. In fact, sometimes a stereoisomer will produce different products with partner stereoisomers in biological systems of living things.
An example is the drug thalidomide. how does it the chiral centers can be formed

1.Determine order of priority of the 4 atoms / groups attached to the chiral C

2.Pusat chiral seen from the opposite direction to the atom / group yangmempunyai lowest priority.

3.If order of priority (besarkecil) clockwise then the center has a configuration kiraldikatakan R. If instead, the center has a configuration kiraldikatakan S.The order of priority

1.Makin high atomic number, the higher the priority, for example: I> Br> Cl> F> OH> NH> CH 3> H

2.If there are groups that are identical, then the priority is determined by the next atom number

3.      3.when ethylene gas produced from a ripe fruit can be used to ripe other fruits that are still unripe. How do you idea when the gas is used as fuel gas like methane gas.

Answer: Ethylene is a plant hormone first in the form of gas. If the fruit is ripe oranges combined with bananas, ripe bananas are faster because orange etilen.Etilen made out of gas plants and cause more rapid ripening ethylene gas requires much buah.Pembentukan inhibited by O2 and CO2. All parts of the plant can produce ethylene gas angiosperms. Formation mainly occurs in roots, shoot apical meristem, mode, fall flowers and ripe fruit. * Natural gas as a fuel, such as fuel Power Plant Gas / Steam, industrial fuel light, medium and heavy fuel vehicles (CNG / NGV), as town gas for domestic hotels, restaurants etc. .

    * Natural gas as a feedstock, such as raw material fertilizer plants, petrochemicals, methanol, plastics raw materials (LDPE = low density polyethylene, LLDPE = linear low density polyethylene, HDPE = high-density polyethylen, PE = poly ethylene, PVC = poly vinyl chloride, C3 and C4 it to LPG, its CO2 for soft drinks, dry ice food preservatives, artificial rain, industrial iron castings, welding and fire extinguisher lighter materials.

    * Natural gas as an energy commodity for export, the Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG.

4.      4.aromatic compounds are marked by ease of adjacent electrons conjugated. Please expain why an unsaturated compound which highly conjugated but is not aromatic

Answer: Based on the arrangement of carbon atoms in the molecule, carbon compounds are divided into two major categories, namely compound aliphatic and cyclic compounds. Aliphatic hydrocarbons are carbon compounds chain opens its C and C it allows branched chain. Based on the amount of the bond, aliphatic hydrocarbons, aliphatic compounds are divided into saturated and unsaturated.

- The compound is a saturated aliphatic C chain aliphatic compounds it contains only single bonds only. This group is called alkanes.

Unsaturated aliphatic compounds are aliphatic compounds, varying chain C double bond or triple. If you have duplicate named alkenes and alkynes have triple called. In unsaturated compounds (-C = O), the transition to the low-energy non-bonding involves electrons to oxygen, one of it was promoted to the p * orbital which is relatively low. However, the transition from n to p *, called "forbidden" or including a ban on the transition, it is associated with a low intensity. Two others, namely the transition from n to s * and from p to s *. Both give strong absorption, but involves high energy. The most noticeable absorption intensity for ketone compounds are electron transition p to p *

ORGANIC ACID BASES

The purpose of the organic acid is a weak acid is very incomplete because of ionization. At one time most of the acid in solution as molecules that are not ionized. For example, in the case etanoik acid, a solution containing 99% etanoik acid molecules and only 1 percent of that is really ionized. The position of the equilibrium being shifted to the left.
Why are acids acidic?
In any case, the bond between oxygen and oxygen-OH disconnected. So the only remaining molecule denoted as "X":
So if the same bond broken in any case, why the three examples above compounds produce acid level that is different?
 The difference between the acid strength of carboxylic acids, phenols and alcohols.
Factors to be considered
Two factors that affect the ionization of the acid is:
• The strength of the bond to be decided,
• the stability of the ions formed.
In this case, you break the bond of the same molecule (between O and H) so it can be determined bond strength is the same.
The most important factor in determining the relative strength of the molecule is in the nature of ion ion ion hidroksinium terbentuk.Anda always get so you do not need to compare it. All you need andabandingkan is the nature of the anions (negative ions) are different in each case.
Acid Etanoik
Etanoik acid has the structure:

Hydrogen is causing the acidic nature of hydrogen bound to oxygen. When etanoik ionized acid formed ethanoate ion, CH3COO-. You may think that the structure of the ethanoate ion is as below, but of the bond length measurements show that carbon with two oxygen bonds are the same length. With a length ranging from single bond length and bond ..
To identifies why, you have to look in detail ethanoate ionic bond.
Just like any other bonds, carbon-oxygen bond is in two distinct parts. A pair of electrons are found on the line between the two nuclei are called sigma bonds. Another pair of electrons are found above and below the plane in the form pi bond. The pi bond is made of p orbitals overlap between carbon and oxygen.
In ethanoate ion, one of the free electrons of oxygen are in a state negarif almost parallel to the orbit;-p orbitals and resulting overlap between oxygen atoms and the other carbon atom.
So there is delocalised pi system of whole-COO-but not as it did in benzene.
All free atoms of oxygen has been removed from the image to simpler.
Because hydrogen is more electronegative than carbon, so that electron delocalization occurs system longer is in the region of oxygen atoms.
Then where is the negative charge of the whole molecule? Jwabannya is spread among the entire molecule-COO-, but the most likely find it in the Sar between the two oxygen atoms.
The more you spread the load, the more stable the ion. Or in this case, if you mendelokalisasikan negative charge to a few atoms, the charge will be less attracted to the tendency to form hydrogen ions re etanoik acid was reduced.
Ethanoate ions can be described simply as:
The dotted lines represent the delocalization. The negative charge in the middle written to illustrate that the charge is not localized on one atom of oxygen.
Phenol
Phenol has an-OH group attached to the chain benzennya.

When the hydrogen-oxygen bond in phenol is lost, you get a phenoxide ion, C6H5O-.
Delocalization also occurs in this ion. At this time, one of the free electrons from the oxygen atom overlap with the electrons of the benzene chain.
This resulted dislokalisasi overlap. And as a result of not only the negative charge is on oxygen but scattered throughout the molecule.
Then why phenols are weaker than etanoik acid? In ethanoate ion, delocalization centered on the area between the two atoms are delocalized oksigen.Sistem divide between the two negatively charged oxygen atoms. There is no more powerful oxygen attract hydrogen ions.
In the phenoxide ion, single oxygen atom is still the most electronegative and delocalized system centered on the oxygen region. So that the oxygen atom has a charge of most negative, even though it does not have as much cargo if delocalization does not occur.
Delocalisation makes phenoxide ion is more stable than it should thus becomes acidic phenols. But not divide the charge delocalization effectively. The negative charge around the oxygen will be attracted to the hydrogen ion dam makes it easier phenol formation again. So that phenol acid is very weak.
Ethanol
Ethanol, CH3CH2OH, is a very weak acid up to the point that you can think of it not as sour. If the oxygen and hydrogen bonding disconnected and release of ions, ion etokside formed.
There is no way to mendelokalisasi negative for a strong bond with the oxygen atom. The negative charge will be very interesting and ethanol hydrogen atoms will be easily reformed.
 Variations in acid strength of some carboxylic acids.
You might think that all the carboxylic acids have the same power as it has the same delocalization around-COO-ion to make a more stable and not easily bound with hydrogen ions.
But the fact that there are a variety of carboxylic acids having acidity.
pKa
HCOOH 3.75
CH3COOH 4.76
CH3CH2COOH 4.87
CH3CH2CH2COOH 4.82
Keep in mind that the higher the pKa, the weaker the acid. Why etanoik acid weaker than adam metanoik? It all depends on the stability of the anion formed. Possible to mendislokalisasikan negative charge. Increasingly terdislokalisasi, the more stable the ion and the stronger the acid.
Ion metanoat metanoik acid:
The only difference between this and the ethanoate ion is the presence of the ethanoate CH3. Alkyl have tended to push electrons away so betambahnya negative charge on the-COO-. The addition of ionic charge makes more unstable because it makes it easier bound with hydrogen. So that etanoik acid weaker than metanoik acid.
Alkyl else also has the effect of "pushing electrons" as the methyl propanoic acid and that acid strength similar to butanoik etanoik acid.
Acid can be strengthened by drawing a charge from-COO-. Yanda can do this by adding electronegative atom such as chloride on a chain.
In the following table are shown the more you tie the more acidic chlorine molecules.
pKa
CH3COOH 4.76
CH2ClCOOH 2.86
CHCl2COOH 1:29
CCl3COOH 0.65
Amino acids Tmerupakan Trikloroetanoik strong enough.
Different halogen tie also makes a difference. Florin is the most electronegative atom so you can guess that the higher the level of acidity florins.
pKa
CH2FCOOH 2.66
CH2ClCOOH 2.86
CH2BrCOOH 2.90
CH2ICOOH 3:17
And the last note also the effects that occur with increasing halogen mnjauhnya of-COO-.
pKa
CH3CH2CH2COOH 4.82
CH3CH2CHClCOOH 2.84
CH3CHClCH2COOH 4:06
CH2ClCH2CH2COOH 4:52
Efektive chlorine atom adjacent to the current-COO-and the effect decreases as the chlorine atom away.
Use the word search facility below to search for words in the chem-is-try.org
ORGANIC BASES
This page describes a simple basic compounds and why their bases.
Why primary amines bases?
 Ammonia is a weak base
Many compounds containing ammonia and this time we will discuss the nature ddari ammonia.
For that, we define bases as "substance joins with hydrogen ions (protons)." We'll see how the bases take hydrogen ions dati water molecules when dissolved in water.
Ammonia in solution is in equilibrium as follows.
An ammonium ion is formed along with hydroxide ions. Since ammonia is a weak base, the state of the ion is not long and back again to its original state. Equilibrium shifts to the left.
Ammonia acts as a base because the lone pair of active nitrogen, nitrogen is more electronegative than hydrogen so attractive bonding electrons on the ammonia molecule at him. Or in other words the presence of a lone pair going negative charge around the nitrogen atom. The combination of these extra negativity and appeal lone pair, draw hydrogen from water.
Comparing the strength of the weak base
The strength of a weak base is scaled pKb. The smaller the value of this scale is a stronger base.
Three compounds will be seen along with their pKb values.
You can see that methylamine is a stronger base where phenylamine much weaker.
Methylamine is typical of primary aliphatic amines. Where NH2 attached to the carbon chain. All primary aliphatic Amin is a stronger base than ammonia.
Phenylamine is typical of primary aromatic amines - where the-NH2 group is attached directly to a benzene ring. These are very much weaker bases than ammonia.
 Explain the difference in the base
Things to think about
Two factors that affect the strength of a base is:
• Ease of lone pair binds hydrogen ions,
• the stability of the ions formed.
 Why aliphatic primary Amin is a stronger base than ammonia?
Methylamine
Methylamine has the structure:
The difference is the presence of ammonia in methyl amine CH3. The alkyl group has a tendency to mendoron electrons away from them. This will mean that a number of additional negative charge around the nitrogen atom. Additional negative charge is more interesting pairing free hydrogen atom.
The more negative nitrogen bound hydrogen ions more easily.
And what about the methyl ion current is established, whether it is more stable than the ammonium ion?
Compare methylammonium ions with ammonium ions.
Methylammonium ions, the positive charge of the ions scattered around effect "electron boost" methyl. The more you spread the charge, the more stable the ion. However, the ammonium ion is no way to spread the positive ions.
Summary:
• Nitrogen is more negative than in the ammonia methylamine, thus binding more active hydrogen.
• Ions are formed in methylamine is more stable than ions formed from ammonia, making it more difficult to change the form of hydrogen ions more ..
Conclusion: methylamine is a stronger base than ammonia.
Other aliphatic primary amines
Alkyl others have the effect of "electron boost" as methyl, so that the strength of aliphatic acids is very similar to another premises methylamine.
For example:
pKb
CH3NH2 3:36
CH3CH2NH2 3:27
CH3CH2CH2NH2 3:16
CH3CH2CH2CH2NH2 3:39
 Why aromatic primary amines are weaker bases than ammonia?
Aromatic primary amines are compounds in which-NH2 group is attached directly to a benzene ring. That might be you often encounter is phenylamine.
Phenylamine has the structure:
Nitrogen lone pair of electrons delocalized ring touching .....
. . . and become delocalized along.
This means that couples no longer fully free to join the hydrogen ions. Nitrogen is still the most electronegative atom in the molecule and therefore approaching the delocalisation going in that direction, but the intensity of the charge around the nitrogen is not such as in within the molecule.

Protein as a means of transportation

Protein as a means of transportation
Carrier protein has the ability to bind to specific molecules and transporting various substances through the blood stream. For instance: hemoglobin, consisting of group-containing compound heme iron bound to the protein globin, serves as an oxygen carrier in the blood of vertebrates; hemosianin, befungsi as an oxygen carrier in the blood of some sort of Invertebrate; myoglobin, the oxygen transporter in muscle tissue ; serum albumin, as a transporter of fatty acids in the blood; β-lipoprotein, a lipid transporter in the blood; ceruloplasmin, a copper ion transporters in the blood.
Hemoglobin is metaloprotein (iron-containing protein) in red blood cells that serves as a carrier of oxygen from the lungs throughout the body, in mammals and other animals. Hemoglobin is also the bearer of carbon dioxide back to the lungs to the body exhaled. Hemoglobin molecule consists of globin, Apoprotein, and four heme groups, an organic molecule with an iron atom.

Mutations in these genes lead to a class of proteins hemoglobin decreased disease called hemoglobinopathy, among which the most common is sickle cell anemia and thalassemia.

Thalassemia is a result of an imbalance manufacture chain amino acids that make up hemoglobin contained by red blood cells. Red blood cells carry oxygen around the body with the help of a substance called hemoglobin. Hemoglobin is made of two different kinds of proteins, namely alpha globin and beta globin. Globin protein is made by a gene located on different chromosomes. If one or more of the globin genes that produce abnormal proteins or lost, there will be a decrease in globin proteins that cause thalassemia. Alpha globin gene mutations cause alpha-thalassemia disease and if it occurs in the beta globin causes beta-thalassemia disease.
Treatment of thalassemia depends on the type and severity of the disorder. Someone carriers or who have alpha or beta thalassemia trait tends to be mild or no symptoms and require little or no treatment. There are 3 (standard) general treatment for thalassemia intermediate level or weight, that blood transfusions, iron chelation therapy, and folic acid supplements mmenggunakan. In addition, there are other treatment is bone marrow transplantation cord, cord blood donation, and HLA (human leukocyte antigens).

• Blood transfusion
Transfusion is done is red blood cell transfusions. This therapy is the mainstay of therapy for people who suffer from moderate or severe thalassemia. Blood transfusion is done through the veins and gives red blood cells with normal hemoglobin. To maintain such circumstances, blood transfusions should be routine for within 120 days of the red blood cells will die. Especially for patients with beta thalassemia intermedia, blood transfusions only done occasionally, not regularly. As for the beta thalssemia major (Cooley's anemia) should be done on a regular basis (2 or 4 weeks).

• Iron Chelation Therapy (Iron Chelation)
Hemoglobin in red blood cells is iron-rich protein. When doing regular blood ransfusi can lead to the buildup of iron in the blood. These conditions can damage the liver, heart, and other organs. To prevent this damage, iron chelation therapy is needed to remove excess iron from the body. There are two drugs that are used in iron chelation therapy, namely:

a) Deferoxamine
Deferoxamine is a liquid medicine given by subcutaneous slowly and usually with the help of a small pump that is used in the overnight period. This therapy is time consuming and a bit of give pain. The side effects of this medication can cause loss of vision and hearing.

b) Deferasirox
Deferasirox is a pill taken once a day. The side effects are headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, joint pain, and fatigue (tiredness).

• Folic Acid Supplements
Folic acid is a B vitamin that can help build red blood cells healthy. This supplement should still be taken in addition to a blood transfusion or iron chelation therapy.

• Transplantation of bone marrow from the back
Bone Marrow Transplantation (BMT) has been conducted since 1900. Blood and marrow stem cell transplant replaces the normal stem cells are damaged. Stem cells are cells in the bone marrow to make red blood cells. Stem cell transplantation is the only treatment that can cure thalassemia. However, it has disadvantages because only a small number of people can find a good match between donor and recipient.

• donation of umbilical cord blood (Cord Blood)
Cord blood is the blood in the umbilical cord and placenta. Such as bone marrow, it is a rich source of stem cells, the building blocks of the human immune system. Compared with donor bone marrow, cord blood non-invasive, painless, more inexpensive and relatively simple.

• HLA (human leukocyte antigens)
Human leukocyte antigens (HLA) are proteins found on the surface of cells in the body. Our immune system is to recognize our own cells as 'self,' and cells 'foreign' as opposed to based on HLA proteins displayed on the surface of our cells. In bone marrow transplantation, HLA can prevent the rejection of the body and Graft versus Host Disease (GVHD). HLA best to avoid rejection is to be genetically related to the donor resipen (receiver).

LIPID COMPOUNDS IN LIFE

Lipid is one of a group of organic compounds found in plants, animals, or humans and are very useful for human life. Lipid compounds do not have a formula similar structure or similar. Kimi properties and biological functions also vary.
Subcutaneous tissue around the abdomen, the fat tissue around the kidneys contain a lot of lipids, especially fatty approximately 90%, in brain tissue lipid atal the eggs are about the size of 7.5 to 30%.
Karakteriktik and Lipid Structure
 Physical Characteristics
The term lipids include fats, oils and related compounds are not soluble in water and oily to the touch. Some lipid foods, butter, margarine, or cooking oil can be easily identified as fat. Other foods that may seem to consist of mostly carbohydrates (bread types) or protein (cow pie) often contain a lot of fat. We refer to this as the hidden fat.

 Chemical Characteristics
Chemical name for fats and related compounds are fat lipids. Lipids are organic compounds consisting of a carbon chain as a "basic framework", with the hydrogen and oxygen atoms and other radicals or groups tertikat other elements. Fatty acids and related compounds are lipids that are important in human nutrition. Lipids have a general similarity with carbohydrates. Same chemical elements that make up carbohydrates - carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen - also form fatty acids. However, carbohydrates and lipids have two important differences as follows:
 Lipid more complex structure, with more carbon atoms (C) and hydrogen (H) and fewer oxygen atoms (O).
 structural units of lipids is common fatty acids, while the structural units of carbohydrates are simple sugars. First we will look at the typical characteristics of fatty acids - saturation, chain length, and essentiality - before focusing on the properties of lipid (triglycerides) are composed of fatty acids. (Junaidi, 2012)
 LIPID STRUCTURE
Lipid-based compound is defined as fatty acids or fatty acid-like molecules such as alcohol or spingosin.





Figure 1 Structure of Lipids
The structures of some common lipids. At the top is oleic acid and cholesterol. The structure of the center is composed of a chain triglycerides oleoil, stearoyl, and palmitoyl glycerol attached to the frame. At the bottom is the common phospholipid, fosfatidikolina. Characteristics that are common in all the lipid content of hydro-carbon is derived from acetate polymerization followed by reduction of the chain as soon as the chain is formed.
Lipid function is:
• As a structural constituent of cell membranes
• In this lipid acts as a barrier to cells and regulate the flow of materials
• As a backup energy
• Lipids are stored as adipose tissue
• As hormaon and vitamin
• Hormone regulate communication between cells, while vitamin helps the regulation of biological processes.
 Gliserolipid
Gliserolipid is a lipid-containing glycerol in which the hydroxyl groups have been substituted. Gliserolipid are the most abundant lipids in animals. Gliserolipid substitutes composed of glycerol mono-, di-, and tri-, the most famous are the fatty acid esters of glycerol (triacylglycerol), also known as triglycerides. Within these compounds, the three hydroxyl groups esterified glycerol respectively, usually by different fatty acids. Because it serves as food reserves, lipid is present in most of the fat reserves in animal tissues. Triacylglycerol hydrolysis of the ester bond and release of glycerol and fatty acids from adipose tissue are called "fat mobilization."
Another gliserolipid glikosilgliserol Subclass, which is characterized by the presence of one or more monosaccharide residues attached to glycerol via a glycosidic bond. Examples of structures in this category are digalaktosildiasilgliserol were found in the membrane of plant and seminolipid of mammalian sperm cells.
Glycerides are esters of fatty acids and alcohols with similar functional tigagugus called glycerol (IUPAC name, 1,2,3-propantriol). Since glycerol has three functional groups alcohols, fatty acids will react to make three ester groups at once. Glycerides with three fatty acid ester group called triglycerides. Types of fatty acids attached to the third group often did not come from the same class of fatty acids.

 Phospholipids
(Glisero) phospholipids (English: phospholipids, phosphoglycerides, glycerophospholipid) is very similar to triglycerides with some exceptions. Phospholipids are formed from glycerol (IUPAC name, 1,2,3-propantriol) with two alcohol groups that form the fatty acid ester group (can be from different classes), and an alcohol group to form phosphoric acid ester group.
Gliserofosfolipid, also referred to as phospholipids, there are quite a lot in nature and are key components dwilapis lipd cells, and are involved in the metabolism and signal communication between cells. Neural tissue including the brain, contains enough gliserofosfolipid. Changes in the composition of these substances can result in various neurological disorders.
Examples gliserofosfolipid found in biological membranes are fosfatidilkolina (also known as PC, GPCho, or lecithin), fosfatidiletanolamina (PE or GPEtn), and fosfatidilserina (PS or GPSer). In addition to acting as the primary component of cell membranes and a commitment to the protein intra-and antarseluler, some gliserofosfolipid in eukaryotic cells, such as phosphatidylinositol and fosfatidat acid is a precursor, or second messenger itself is derived from the membrane. Typically, one or both of these hydroxyl groups acylated with long-chain fatty acids, meskit gliserofosfolipid there are bound to alkyl and 1Z-alkenyl (plasmalogen). There are also variants dialkileter on arkaebakteria.
Gliserofosfolipid can be divided according to the nature of the polar head groups at the sn-3 position of the glycerol backbone in eukaryotes and eubakteria, or sn-1 position in the case of archaea.
Because the phosphoric acid ester group still has a free valence bond, usually with alcohol to form the ester group, such as amino alcohols kolina, ethanolamine and serine. Phospholipids are the major component of the cell membrane layer of fat. Phospholipids are commonly encountered are:
 Lecithin containing amino alcohol type kolina
 Kepalin containing amino alcohol type serine or ethanolamine.
The nature of the character depends phospholipid fatty acids and amino alcohols were tied.
 Sfingolipid

Sfingolipid is a complex family of compounds that share the same structural features, the basic framework sfingoid bases are synthesized de novo from amino acids serine and long-chain fatty acyl CoA, which is then converted into ceramides, fosfosfingolipid, glisosfingolipid, and compounds other.
Sfingolipid name is taken from Greek mythology, Spinx, half woman and half lion destroy anyone who is not able to answer the riddle. Sfingolipid discovered by Johann Thudichum in 1874 as a puzzle that is very complex from brain tissue.
Sfingolipid second type of fat is found in the cell membranes, especially in nerve cells and brain tissue. They do not mengandunggliserol, but can hold two alcohol groups at the center of the frame amines.
The main Fosfosfingolipid in mammals is sphingomyelin (ceramides fosfokolina), while the insects mainly contain ceramides fosfoetanolamina and fungi have fitoseramida fosfoinositol and mannose-containing head groups.
Basa main sfingoid mammals commonly referred to as sfingosina. Ceramides (Tongue N-acyl-sfingoid) is the main subclass sfingoid base derivatives with fatty acids attached to the amide. Fatty acid is usually mono-unsaturated or saturated with chain length of 16 carbon atoms to 26 carbon atoms.
Glikosfingolipid is a diverse group of molecules that are composed of one or more sugar residues linked to alkaline sfingoid via a glycosidic bond.
 Lipid sterol
Sterol lipids, such as cholesterol and its derivatives, is an important component of membrane lipids, along with gliserofosfolipid and sphingomyelin. Steroids, all derived from the four-ring core structure melting of the same, has a varied biological roles as hormones danmolekul signaling. Steroid 18-carbon (C18) include the estrogen family, while the C19 steroids comprise the androgens such as testosterone danandrosteron. C21 subclass includes progestagen, as well as glucocorticoids and mineral okortikoid. Sekosteroid, consists of a wide range of bentukvitamin D, characterized by cleavage of the B ring of the core structure. Other examples of fatty acids and bile sterols are conjugate-conjugate, which in mammals are oxidized derivatives of cholesterol and are synthesized in the liver. In plants, the equivalent is a phytosterol compounds, such as beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and brasikasterol; latter compounds are also used as the growth of algae. Predominant sterol in fungal cell membranes is ergosterol.
 Lipid prenol
Lipid prenol synthesized from 5-carbon precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate pyrophosphate dandimetilalil mostly generated through the passage mevalonic acid (MVA). Simple isoprenoids (linear alcohols, diphosphates, etc.) are formed from the addition of C5 units are continuous, and are classified according to the number of these terpene units. Structures containing more than 40 carbon known as polyterpenes. Carotenoids are important simple isoprenoids that function as antioxidants and as precursors of vitamin A. Example of an important class of biological molecules is another quinone and hydroquinone containing isoprenoid tail attached to the core kuinonoid which is not derived from isoprenoid. Vitamin E and vitamin K, as well ubikuinon, is an example of this class. Prokaryotes synthesize poliprenol (called baktoprenol) the terminal isoprenoid unit attached to oxygen remains unsaturated, whereas in animal poliprenol (dolikol) the terminal isoprenoid been reduced.
 Sakarolipid
Structure sakarolipid Kdo2-Lipid A. Glucosamine residues blue, red KDO residues, acyl chains in black and phosphate groups in green.
Sakarolipid (English: saccharolipid, glucolipid) is a fatty acid molecule attached directly with glucose to form membrane structures in accordance with dwilapis. In sakarolipid, monosakari and replacing ties glycerol with fatty acids, as occurs in gliserolipid and gliserofosfolipid.
Sakarolipid the best known are the acylated glucosamine precursors of the lipid A component of lipopolysaccharide on gram-negative bacteria. Lipid-A molecule is a disaccharide of glucosamine general, derived seven-fatty acyl chains. Minimal lipopolysaccharide required for growth of E. coli is Kdo2-Lipid A, which is a disaccharide of glucosamine-acyl berheksa that diglikosilasikan acid residues with two 3-deoxy-D-mano-oktulosonat (KDO).

Organic Compounds of Life

Living organisms must be able to:Exchanges matter and energy with its surroundings.Transform matter and energy into a different form.Responding to changes in their environment.Growing.Reproduce.All of these changes are due to large organic compounds called macromolecules.Macromolecules is a combination of many similar smaller molecules polymerized into a chain structure.In living organisms, there are three main types of macromolecules that controls all the activities and determine what an organism will do and be.Protein.carbohydrateNucleic acids.1.Protein are macromolecules which are polymers of amino acids.In a review of protein chemistry is a complex organic compounds of high molecular weight polymer with a monomer in the form of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
 For a discussion we examine the first protein monomer building blocks of protein are amino acidsAmino acids are organic compounds having carboxylate functional group (COOH) and amine (NH2) attached to a carbon atom (Cɲ) the same, the atom is also generally a C asymmetric. The detailed structure of amino acids built by a C atom that binds to four groups namely amine (NH2), a carboxylic group (COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and the rest of the group R. This cluster distinguishes one amino acid with another amino acid. Carboxylate groups of acidic amino acid causes the amine group is basa.Hal is due to protonation, the amine group becomes - [NH3 +] and a carboxylate ion - [COO-], so that amino acids have two charge and is called the zwitter-ion. Classification of Acid acids based on the nature and structure of the leaving group (R), as R groups that are acidic, alkaline, sulfur-containing R groups or hydroxyl, R as aromatic compounds, aliphatic and cyclic. However, the commonly used classification is the nature of the polarity of the group R.2.Karbohidrat ('hydrates of carbon', carbohydrate) or saccharides (from the Greek σάκχαρον, sákcharon, meaning "sugar") is a majority of the most abundant organic compound on earth. The simplest forms of carbohydrate molecules consist of one molecule of simple sugars called monosaccharides, such as glucose, galactose, and fructose. Many carbohydrates are polymers made up of sugar molecules that are strung into long chains and can also ramify, called polysaccharides, such as starch, chitin, and cellulose. In addition to monosaccharides and polysaccharides, there is also a disaccharide (two monosaccharides series) and oligosaccharides (chain several monosaccharides).3. Nucleic acids were first isolated macromolecules of the cell nucleus. Nucleic acids form linear chains which is a combination of nucleotide monomers as the builder unit. This molecule stores information cell growth and reproduction.
Nucleotide monomers as the primary structure of nucleic acids obtained from the hydrolysis of nucleic acids. Further hydrolysis of the nucleotide monomers will produce phosphoric acid and nucleoside. Hydrolysis process was carried out under alkaline conditions. If hydrolysis continued to nucleoside compounds in aqueous acidic solution will produce a sugar molecule and nitrogen bases to form heterocyclic. So the composition of the constituent molecules of nucleic acid known,

Aromatic hydrocarbon

aromatic hydrocarbon or arena [1] (sometimes also called aryl hydrocarbon) [2] is a hydrocarbon with a single bond or a double bond, and between carbon atoms. Configuration 6 carbon atoms in an aromatic compound called benzene rings. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic or polycyclic.
Some aromatic compounds that are not called heteroarena benzene derivatives, these compounds follow Hückel Rule. In these compounds, at least one carbon atom is replaced by another atom, such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur. One contohn compound is furan, a heterocyclic ring compound having 5 members, one oxygen atom. Another example is pyridine, a heterocyclic ring compound with 6 members, one nitrogen atom. [3]
Aromatic substitution In aromatic substitution, 1 substituents on the ring arena (usually hydrogen) will be replaced with other substituents. 2 main types are electrophilic aromatic substitution (active electrophile reagent) and nucleophilic aromatic substitution (reagennya nucleophile). In the radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution, a radical form of active reagents. One example is the nitration of salicylic acid: [4]:

Couplings At couplings, metal will catalyze the coupling between the two radical fragments formal. The results are usually obtained from the coupling reaction is the formation of new carbon-carbon bonds, for example alkilarena, vinyl arena, biraril, the carbon-nitrogen (aniline) or a carbon-oxygen bond new. An example is the arylation of perfluorobenzena



Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbonsPolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are carcinogenic particular one, meaning that there are cancerous. These compounds can produce tumors in mice within a very short time even though only a few are applied to the skin. This is not only carcinogenic hydrocarbons present in coal tar, but also the soot and tobacco smoke and can form in the meat baker. Biological effects have been known for a long time, ie since 1775, when the soot is defined as a cause of cancer of the penis chimney cleaning. Incidence of lip cancer and heart disease are also found in the smoker.

How these carcinogens cause cancer now began to unfold. To eliminate hydrocarbons, mengoksidasinya body to be more soluble in water, making it easier excreted. Metabolic oxidation product appears to be the major cause of cancer. For example, one of the most potent carcinogens of this type is benzo [a] pirena. Enzymatic oxidation converts it into diol-epoxide as shown in the figure below.

Diol-epoxide is then reacted with the cell's DNA, causing mutations that ultimately prevents cells reproduce normally.

Benzene is highly toxic (toxic) to humans and can cause severe liver damage, but toluene, though not dangerous, is much less toxic. How might these two similar compounds behave differently? To eliminate benzene from the body, must be in cinci aromatic oxidation, and this oxidation intermediates of a destructive nature. However, the side chain methyl of toluene can be oxidized to produce benzoic acid, which can be excreted. Intermediates in this process can not cause health problems.

While some chemicals can cause cancer, other substances can change or heal. Many substances that can prevent cancer growth, and assessment of cancer chemotherapy has been widely sumbangnya human health.

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